Politeness theory

Morand, D.A. & Ocker, R.J. (2003)

Politeness Theory and Computer-Mediated Communication: A Sociolinguistic Approach to Analysing Relational Messages

Proceedings of the 36^th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences IEEE 0-7695-1874-5/03

?page numbers

p1 ‘CMC research lies at the intersection of several disciplines’

Suggest Politeness theory as a useful tool for CMC research particularly when looking at interaction sequences in terms of relational ties eg. power, friendship, social distance.

FTA face threatening act

Definitions

Politeness: Phrasing things so as to show respect and esteems for the face of others.

Face: p2 ‘ the positive social value each person effectively claims for him or her slef in the public arena’

Communication cf Interaction

Communication has a technical meaning, the process of encoding meaning., transmission and subsequent decoding by a receiver’

Interaction ’directs attention away from strict message content and toward the psychological and group dynamics occasioned by the interfacing of public personas.’ Authors query use of CMC rather than CMI. i.e. p5 ‘ individuals in CMC modes are aware of and motivated by dramaturgical concerns. ‘ Politeness goes against the grain ….. whereby researchers allocate conversational acts into either task or socio-emotionally orientated moves’ ….. ‘task work often entail substantial emotion work – designed to appease and buffer the face of others’

Politeness theory

Theoretical provenance - sociolinguistic & anthropological. p1 ‘socio linguistics is expressly concerned with how language varies as a function of social roles and variables, and with how specific linguistic elements function to convey relational meaning’.p6 ‘Anthropological and social psychological literatures suggest that there exist two generic, broad based role orientations under which many other forms of role orientations may be classified…. Social distance ( horizontal dimension) and power distance ( vertical dimension0. ‘ The notion of generic role orientations is akin to factor analytic techniques in statistics; that is, what at first glance appear to be a number of disparate role orientations can be shown to share underlying commonalities or factors’ therefore authors propose that status relations are defined by politeness asymmetries.

Draws in part on dramaturgical framework ( Goffman) individuals use linguistic, behavioural and gestural displays to present a positive self-image ( face) to the social world’ however politeness theory also emphasises ‘ interactional support work destined towards others’ face. That is, all individuals have face, but also ‘face wants’ – the desire and expectation that others who surround them in interaction will work to affirm and preserve their public persona’

thus politeness theory p1 ‘provides a novel yet grounded framework that offers fresh insights into the emotional and interpersonal dynamics undergirding group processes’

Politeness as a process during social interaction; locating politeness in everyday speech.

Politeness & therefore face work is ongoing throughout social interaction. However there are some common interactional events (FTAs) e.g. disagreement, interrupting , asking a favour etc during which support work ( ? face work) is particularly critical.

See diagram at the end of the notes.

Ambiguity is a way of providing a range of possible attributions ( interpretations) so that any that might be inadvertently attributed ( receiver) or intended (sender) as a threat may be softened by the ambiguity.

Unambigous may be accompanied by redressive action , p3 ‘the most common and linguistically diverse strategy. Senders draw on an array of linguistic devices – negative and positive.... These two categories derive from the fact that face wants possess two basic aspects – positive face and negative face.

Positive face references every individual’s basic desire for their public self image to be shown engagement, ratification, appreciation from others – the want to be wanted. Examples of positive politness use colloquialisms or slang to convey in-group membership, use first name or in-group name ( eg Bud) to insinutae familiarity, use inclusive forms ( we) give something desired eg gifts, sympathy, understanding.’ i.e. try to identify commonality between sender and receiver. Positive tend to be less polite.

But just as individuals desire affirmation and esteem, they also desire a degree of autonomy and self-determination.

Negative face represents the want of each actor that his or her person be unimpeded – the desire for freedom from impingement. Positive politness tactics thus address or invoke others’ positive face wants, palliating through the demonstration of esteem.

Examples of Negative politeness: hedges, subjunctives, deference ( Sir)apologise, impersonalize the speaker ( avoid I & you) , use past tense to create distance in time.

See paper for full copy of Brown & Levinson examples of negative and positive politness. Note positive tactics are less polite than negative tactics. For example positive tactiice could be receieved as an imposition on the personal space of the other. Note p5 ‘ Brown & Levinson drew upon a large body of well established and carefully researched linguistic and sociolinguistic findings’ to compile their tables and therefore these should form a reliable basis for a methodological approach

CMC and politness

Is CMC same/similar to face-to-face?

Hiemstra, G. (1982) Teleconferencing, concern for face, and organizational culture

CommunicationYearbook M. Burgoon, Editor. 1982 Sage: Newbury Park, CA p874-904.

Examined CMC session transcripts , synchronous & asynchronous.

P5 ‘ Goffman observed that even technical interchange is bracketed by opening ( greeting ) and closing ( farewell ) sequences in which actors ‘ clarify and fix the roles that the participants will take’

Lee, A. (1994. Electronic mail as a medium for rich communication: An emprirical investigation using hermeneutic interpretation’ MIS Quarterly 143-147.

(KRO - not a strong or comprehensive review for conclusion that CMC and face-to-face are similar apart from interruptions that is although authors claim that CMC has alternatives such as the send button ( Lee paper) KRO – need to tease out in terms of asynchronous/synchronous.

Evolution of politeness norms in CMC

Two basic rules of communicative competence guide all communication, clarity and politeness. These rules ‘clash’. In F to f non verbal cues play a substantial role in the contextualisation of politeness. Absent such cues and there is a greater chance for message misinterpretation – maybe a partial explanation for flaming.

Senders will continuously adjust (KRO same for face to face presumably) p7 ‘ senders will eventually gain awareness of which aspects of written messages make them vulnerable to misinterpretation and learn ways around this. One way to make up for the lack of non-verbal accompaniments would entail being less polite- ie more direct and straightforward in CMC’. May give the appearance of rudeness.

Learning & Emotion in the Classroom Hascher

Learning and Emotion: perspectives for theory and research

Hascher,T (2010)

European Educational Research Journal, 9, 1, 13-28.

Comments on the fragmentation of emotion research ( ? as applied to learning) , p13 ‘The presentation gives an overview of the state of the art, developing a general framework for theory and research’

Three characteristics of emotion

Many different definitions of emotion and many similar terms, mood, feeling, affect,

However maybe we can agree on the following 3 characteristics

P14

(i) ‘An emotion is an affective reaction, which can be determined and described relatively precisely and can be attributed to a cause or an incident.

(ii) ‘The experience of an emotion (in a learning context) .is related to situations which are of importance to an individual’

(iii) As soon as an emotion is experienced, this emotion becomes the centre of the awareness for the person also leading to an increased self-awareness. Emotions can hardly be denied. They can be disguised towards others but rarely towards oneself.

i.e. Schulz et al (2006,p345) ‘emotions are ways of being’ ‘holistic episodes that include physiological, psychological and behavioural aspects’ i.e. they are interrelated with cognition & behaviour. Therefore there are 5 components to an emotion namely, affect, related thoughts, expression, motivation ( impulse for action) and physiological.

Measuring emotion should reflect this multicomponent approach therefore at least 8 indicators, valence, arousal level(activating/deactivation), intensity, duration, frequency, time dimension ( e.g retrospective like relief, orientated to another person like sympathy, context) Remember also for some there is a distinction between trait & state emotions.

How does emotion impact on learning?

Most theories based on experimental research on mood induction

Three theoretical approaches

(i) mood-congruence hypothesis ( Bower, 1981). Based ( at the time) on the idea of cognitive networsk, that p15 ‘ architecture of the brain is organized by associations and semantic similarities, the more similar and the stronger the association, the closer the location of the information and the easier the activation ( ? still in date?)

(ii) Schwatz (1990) mood has information potential ‘ a person interprets their mood and reacts positively in a positive mood and aversively in a negative mood’.

(ii) Integration of mood information with cognition ( (ii) implies behaviour) gives mood dependent cognitive styles.

Functions of emotions for school learning

In a school context positive emotions/mood can be counter productive unless attention is focused. On the other hand in the right conditions + emotions can enhance creativity. Negative emotions tend to lead the individual to self focus. Cognitive and motivational factors can impact on the effect of emotion on learning. i.e. they act as mediators. Teachers can impact on these mediating factors. Context and learning material also carry emotional potential.

How to approach the study of emotion on learning

Experimental – about control not analysis

P18 ‘each learner has their own learning history’

P18 ‘ it has to be taken explicitly into account that the same emotion from a different origin serves identical or even similar functions and has an identical or similar impact on school learning ( KRO- what is the evidence for this?)

Therefore author studied ‘ the emotional phenomenology of everyday school life’ based on 1300 diary entries from 58 adolescent students showed attribution of emotion to teacher 38%, subject (26%), peers 15% and school 26/27 %.

P19 ‘ so far , the only emotion that is well investigated is anxiety’ + effect is that people become more activated with anxiety, a negative effect is that they worry. i.e. p20 ‘ different components of one emotion can serve different functions’ however ‘ frequent experience of an emotion can lead to a form of habituation….. these so-called affective tendencies or trait emotions are probably more influential on learning that a sort term emotional episode’ in the case of anxious traits a student can become hyper vigilant to a certain cue’

Author formulates 3 aspects of special importance for future research in the context of school learning.

(i) how can the process of learning and instruction (KRO and also construction) be modelled in an integrative way i.e. flow of the teacher-learner process

(ii) which functions do the different qualities of emotions have for the learning process?

(iii) what are the mediator variables ( KRo also how do they mediate/)

Immordino-Yang & Damasio

Immordino-Yang M.H., and Damasio, A. (2007)

We Feel, Therefore We Learn: The Relevance of Affective and Social Neuroscience to Education.

Mind, Brain & Education, 1, 1, 3-10.

Interrelationship of cognition & emotion

1. Patient data

Gives biological/neuroscience i.e. neuropsychological evidence for the interrelationship of cognition and emotion by demonstrating a dissociation between emotion and cognition.

The evidence

‘patients whose ability to make advantageous decisions became compromised’ comprehensive testing showed that not IQ or reasoning problem and that logic and knowledge was intact. But there was an emotional disturbance that included p3/9 ‘ diminished resonance of emotional reactions generally as well as specific compromise of social emotions, such as compassion, embarrassment and guilt. By compromising the possibility of evoking emotions associated with certain past situations, decision options and outcomes, the patients become unable to select the most appropriate response based on past experience’ ‘ do not notice others praise or disapproval’ KRO NVC as indicators of praise/disproval.

2. Developmental evidence Anderson et al, 1999 & Damasio, 2005.

(KRO ? link to callous stuff at CEN but then there is an incidence question)

p4/9 ‘ while adult onset patients know right from wrong in the lab they are unable to use this information to guide their behaviour, childhood-onset patients have apparently not learned right from wrong or the proper rules for social conduct’ (KRO importance of a role model?) i.e. ‘ without the ability to manipulate situations and to mark these situations as positive or negative from an affective point of view, these children fail to learn normal social behaviour’ and therefore don’t acquire the appropriate decision making behaviour’

Individual & social

Accepts and describes a distinction between individual & social p2/9 ‘ makes clear that the very neurobiological systems that support our social interactions and relationships are recruited for the often covert and private decision making that underlies much of our thought.’

Two hypotheses

1. p4/9 ‘ Because these findings underscore the critical role of emotion in bringing previously acquired knowledge to inform real-world decision making in social contexts, they suggest the intriguing possibility that emotional processes are required for the skills and knowledge acquired in school to transfer to novel situations in real life’

2. ‘It may be via the emotional route that the social influences of culture come to shape learning, thought and behaviour’ KRO a large conceptual leap without any direct supporting neuroscience. It also does not have sufficient recognition of the complexity of brain processes.

A physiological account of emotion and cognition from automatic responses to morality, creativity, high reason and culture.

And ultimately relevance to Education

P5/9 uses example of the behaviours involved when an ant carries food to its nest as a ‘primitive instance of cognition composed of complex packages of innate responses’ i.e. the ant behaves in this way in order ‘to promote survival and efficiency’ then goes on to say that ‘humans perceive that efficiency as well being and pleasure’

‘one could argue that the chief purpose of Education is to cultivate children’s building of repertoires of cognitive and behavioural strategies and options’ with ethical decision making and morality as the ultimate manifestation i.e. ‘able to move beyond the opportunistic ambivalence of nature’ ‘the hallmark of ethical action is the inhibition of immediately advantageous ( KRO delay as important part of the ‘emotional’ feedback loop) or profitable solutions in the favour of what is good or right within our own cultural frame of reference’

Damasio’s view of emotion

“Emotion, then, is a basic form of decision making, a repertoire of know-how and actions that allows people to respond differently in different situations. The more advanced cognition becomes, the more high level reasoning supports the customization of these responses, both in thought and action. With evolution and development, the specifications of conditions to which people respond and the modes of response at their disposal become increasingly nuanced’

‘emotions entail the perception of an emotionally competent trigger, a situation either real or imagined, that has the power to induce an emotion’

“Emotions help us to direct our reasoning into the sector of knowledge that is relevant to the current problem’ i.e. emotion as a rudder (KRO emotion as a memory trigger)

Glossary items: Blakemore & Frith

Brain region This term is generally used to refer to a part of the brain, comprising millions of neurons, which is specialized for a particular process ( or processes)

Cognitive explanations in terms of psychological constructs

Critical period The period during which certain kinds of environmental stimulation are necessary for the brain’s sensory and motor systems to develop normally. Recently, most scientists have abandoned the term, because the term sensitive period is more fitting

Empathizing putting oneself in the emotional shoes of others

Event related potentials (ERPs) electrical responses that are generated by the brain that occur at a fixed time relative to a particular stimulus and can be recorded using EEG.

Executive functions high level processes of the frontal lobes, such as the ability to inhibit inappropriate behaviour, plan, select actions, hold information in mind, and do two things at once -KRO interesting link to idea of the brain as a machine under control of the individual

Hebbian learning If two neurons that have synaptic connections between them are excited at the same time, the connection between them will be strengthened. This means that in future it will be easier for the first neuron to fire the second. This mechanism is the basis of learning in the brain.

Imitation Observing how others do things and then trying to do the same thing oneself.

Implicit learning Learning or memory without awareness

Inferior – lower side of the brain

Limbic system A group of brain structures that are involved in various emotions such as aggression, fear, pleasure, and also formation of memory. The limbic system consists of several structures including hippocampus, amygdala, cingulated gyrus and hypothalamus.

LTP Long-term potentiation. An enduring ( lasting over one hour) increase in the efficiency of a synapse caused by incoming neuronal activity. If two connected neurons are stimulated at the same time, the amount of signal passing from one neuron to the other increases. This is believed to be due to Hebbian learning (KRO or Hebbian learning is due to this biological property of neurons)

Mentalizing automatic ability to attribute mental states, such as desires, beliefs, or feelings to others and oneself. In this way we explain and predict behavior.

Mind Thoughts and feelings in the head, whether or not we are aware of them consciously. Unlike in everyday language where mind is often seen as opposed to the brain, most neuroscientists consider the mind as a product of the brain.

Mind-brain is an expression that emphazises the close relationship.

Module A discrete component of a system; modules of the mind can be separated ou only with great ingeniousness and are currently a matter of controversy.

Neuropsychology The diagnosis, study, and treatment of people who have suspected brain damage

Neuroscience the study of structure and function of the brain, mind and behaviour.

Plasticity The brain’s capacity to adapt continually to changing circumstances.

Planum temporale Region in the temporal cortex. The left planum temporale, which is usually larger than the right, is dedicated to decoding speech and writing.

Premotor cortex Part of the frontal cortex, on both sides of the brain, involved in planning and making movements

Representation A concept, image or memory in the mind; a pattern of neural activity in the brain that relates to a concept, image or memory

(KRO something to critically analyse eg should neuroscience be based on abstract concepts such as this)

sensitive period The period during which the brain is particularly likely to be affected by experience. After a sensitive period, if the brain has not been exposed to certain environmental stimuli, it is unlikely that it will develop certain sensory or motor functions normally without special remedial input.

Social brain The network of brain areas that are involved in understanding others and social communication

Start-up mechanism A mechanism that the brain is equipped with and that enables fast track learning of a particular skill.

Subcortical Relating to the brain structures that are below the cerebral cortex. These include the amygdala, hippocampus, and superior colliculus. These are part of a pathway in the brain that allows us to make movements quickly and automatically on the basis of what we see. These abilities are shared with many other animals

(KRO interesting description – worth thinking about)

superior colliculus subcortical structure involved in fast sensory processing , especially visual processing

(KRO I thought it was a mandatory station on the visual pathway)

superior temporal sulcus A deep fold running down the temporal lobe, involved in perceiving other people’s movements and actions and faces.

Supplementary motor cortex area just in front of the motor cortex in the middle of the brain associated with preparation and imagination of movement.

Temporal cortex The region of cortex on both sides of the brain, where visual recognition and language comprehension occurs.

(KRO simplistic ? represents research area and experience therefore focus)

theory of mind The implicit and sometimes explicit understanding that other people have mental states, such as beliefs, desires and intentions, which may differ from one’s own.

Paul HJ Philosophy

Paul.Howard-Jones (2008)

Philosophical Challenges for Researchers at the Interface between Neuroscience and Education.

Journal of Philosophy of Education, 42, 3-4, 361-380

KRO Notes

Comparing with GC hotseat article

No reference to learning theories even in section on Education’s approach to learning

Phj advises asking each other ( when each other are from different disciplines) questions.

The problem is similar for phj ‘ working at the interface means that straddling different philosophies’ KRO and a lot of other things like method, vocab.

Phrasing

‘neuroscientific insight of how we learn’

‘compelling evidence as opposed to firm proof’

p371 ‘practical benefits of avoiding dualism’

p373 ‘ resist being seduced by explanations exclusively privileging factors of one type , be it biological, psychological or social.’

P375 ‘ when biological and cognitive concepts resonate, one can feel more confident about the validity of both’

P376 free will & the individual ‘ some scientists suggest, therefore, that our sense of free will is a trick, just the mind’s way of estimating its own apparent authorship by drawing causal inferences about relationships between thoughts and actions’ also ‘ since discussions about the existence of free will are very bound up with those about consciousness , they are unlikely to be resolved in the future’

Definitions & descriptions

‘Philosophy investigates the bounds of sense, that is what can be coherently thought and said’ Bennett & Hacker 2003, p399’

What is Learning?

View from neuroscience

Is it memory?. Cognitive psychologists have conceptualised different types

Declarative & non declarative ie facts & skills – reports evidence for location in medial temporal lobe ( eg hippocampus) and diencephalons that facilitates memory and accepts that other brain areas are involved depending on more specific aspects of the memory task.

Declarative & non declarative memory as process

‘changes in the patterns of connectivity between neurons ie synaptic plasticity. “ two key ways in which this can occur know as long-term potentiation(LTP) and long term depression (LTD)’

‘LTP refers to an enduring increase ( upwards of one hour) of the efficiency by which a neuron relays electrical information, as a result of temporal pairing (coincidence in time) between the incoming and ongoing signal’ “LTP refers to the ability of a neuron to adjust its connectivity, in response to signals related in time’ i.e. Hebbian learning

LTD ‘ refers to an enduring decrease in synaptic efficiency. This is a mechanism thought to explain , for example, how neurons in the perehinal cortex decrease their output as a stimulus is repeatedly presented, underlying our ability to recognise familiarity’ KRO – how does this relate to inhibition?

Also makes claims for an increase in size of structures with practice and decrease according to reduced practice. practice.

Working memory – relevant to the type of memory promoted by Education. Locates to dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC).

Working memory as process p364-365 ‘ rather than being supported by mechanisms of synaptoc plasticity and the production of new connectivity, it would appear that the DLPFC supports working memory by controlling a temporary increase in acivity within pre-existing networks’

Note also the shift of brain activity ( indicating a locality for cognitive process?) as expertise of the individual increases. ( cf Larry & learning to sing).

View from Education

KRO what do we mean when we say the view from Education, the term embraces so much, so much broader than neuroscience, where are the boundaries?

P365 ‘ Educational ideas about learning are diverse and eclectic in their origins. The product of a variety of forces and products.’

‘culturally transmitted ideas from within and beyond the teaching profession’

‘generally teachers have an atheoretical approach but there is an overall tendency to favour constructivism rather than explicit instruction (? now looking from the point of view of learning theory)

Figure 1 Levels of educational change as proposed in a recent commentary by the

Teaching and Learning Research Programme (TLRP, 2006). Adapted from

Blakemore and Frith (2000) with permission of the authors. Demonstrates this as a series of circles of increasing radius containing the following

1. Classroom processes
2. Teachers’ roles, values, knowledge and skills
3. Teachers’ professional development
4. School structures and cultures
5. Local and national policy e.g. reference on page 366 to the 10 Principles into Practice TLRP, 2007, with 1-6 expanding on what can be achieved beyond factual recall. E.g’.the significance of informal learning such as that occurring out of school

Concerns about the incompatibility of neuroscientific and educational perspectives on learning

P367 ‘ some of the concerns in the new discourse between neuroscience and education revolve around some quite old arguments. One of these is an extreme form of dualism; in which the mind and brain are considered as separate and distinct. The opposite point of view, that they are one and the same is described here as monism’

Explicit reference to either monism or dualism is rare but the implication is common.

Monism: does brain = mind?

Davis and category error ‘ Davis may be correct in suggesting that neuroscience should not presently be used to provide any additional support for promoting concepts of meaning making that are essentially psychological. Neither might such support be needed, since these psychological concepts are well supported by behavioural studies, even if the neuroscientific search is still on for the biological structures’ ( KRO do behavioural studies suffice?).

‘The belief of some that the mind can be fully described by states of the brain may be a significant factor in some interdisciplinary tensions’

Use of metaphor p369 ‘ unrelenting efforts to use metaphors ( eg map, symbol) in describing representations in the brain when they, as commonly understood, cannot exist there’ (KRO isn’t this one of the problems with the collective drive to anatomically locate an area under study also compounded by an absence of a common vocabulary or acceptance of different approach).

Dualism: Are brain and mind distinct concepts? ( KRO how about if we phrased this as different entities? One being abstract and the other concrete)

With this view can make statements about mind-behaviour and brain- behaviour relationships but not about brain-mind relationships.

However one approach used by neuroscientists is to construct the brain as a biological tool for the mind or that brain activity reflects meaning making processes of the mind. To an extent the monism / dualism philosophical approach is reflected in

Causal and contingent relationships between mind and brain

Phj questions relationship as mere contingency… p370 ‘ However, brain processes are clearly more than just a reflection of our mind’s attempt to assign and contemplate meaning, since the suppression of brain processes ( through trama or experimental techniques such as TMS) can reduce such mental abilities ( KRO – but how does this statement fit with text based lesions argues for taking as many perspectives as possible). Also phj re cites evidence for changing size of some brain structures depending on expertise or use.

Phh concludes that ‘ biological processes in the brain appear to be intimately bound up with our cognitive ( KRO only cognitive?) abilities even if they cannot be considered the same thing’

Example of a causal approach : ADHD due to brain malfunction leads to education professionals shifting responsibility to medicine. But since there are things that schools, parents and society can do p371 there are ‘practical benefits of avoiding dualism’

Implications of dualism for education would be that teachers do not need to know about the brain and how it might affect behaviour particularly in problematic areas whereas such knowledge could contribute to the approach to intervention e.g. ADHD.

Therefore dangers from adopting both a monism or a dualism approach

Mind and Brain together: Cognitve Neurosceince.

Cognitive neuroscience – understanding the interrelationship between brain and mind ( KRO then where does social neuroscience some in?)

So far

Blakemore & Frith, 2000 the mind and brain must be explained together

Bruer, 1997 : education & neuroscience; a bridge too far

Morton & Frith model, 1995 to combine environmental, biological, cognitive & behavioural levels of description. (KRO make connection the table of perception-process-outcome from the Joinson book) . Facts ? the observable represented at the Brain & the behavior level ( KRO has the the ability to observe at the brain level distorted our thinking?)

phJ p372 ‘ in this brain-mind-behaviour model, the term ‘envionment’ must be considered in terms of the level being described.’ (KRO ? is text based a restriction or does it operate at the level of the brain?), ‘The (solid) arrows indicate the directions in which causal connections are most often sought’ PHJ suggests that the arrows could be drawn bidirectional ( see dashed lines). For example, environmental influences ( such as being able to access a new stimulus) can influence our behaviour that also, in turn, influences our mental processes. If these processes produce learning, this learning can be assumed to have some neural correlate at a biological level.’ (KRO – link to Joinson, Chapter 5) but also thinking in terms of the new stimulus being additive in terms of having a mental correlate’ ( KRO another thought , do solid lines indicate the influence of the individual and the dotted the influence of Education, including the educator?)

Note emphasis on the individual

Leaving behind biologically privileged learning – a ‘levels of action’ model for neuroscience and education. Bringing in the social

We some how need to link biology, psychology and/or mind to Education.

Social & cultural factors ( papers by Davis & Schumacher which I need to get.

Davis, A.J. The Credentials of Brain-Based Learning. Journal of Philsophy of Education, 38,1, 21-36.

Schumacher, R. (2007) The Brain is not enough: Potential and Limits in Integrating Neuroscience & Pedagogy, Analyse & Kritik, 29.1, pp38-46.)

Have a role at an educational level therefore the following figure which represents learning when two individuals interact compared to the previous figure which focuses on the individual ‘ becomes more suggestive of the complexity that can arise when considering brain-mind-behaviour relationships within educational contexts’

Figure 3 To interrelate the most valuable insights from cognitive neuroscience and

the social science perspectives of education (represented by arrows), the brain-4

mind-4behaviour model may need to be socially extended. Even two individuals

interacting, as represented here, is suggestive of the complexity that can arise when

behaviour becomes socially mediated. Such complexity remains chiefly the realm

of social scientists, who often interpret the meaning of such communication in

order to understand the underlying behaviour. Cognitive neuroscience has

established its importance in understanding behaviour at an individual level but is

only just beginning to contemplate the types of complex social domains studied by

educational researchers reproduced from Howard-Jones (2007) with permission of

the TLRP.

P375 ‘the recent flourishing of journals focusing on social cognitive neuroscience demonstrate the beginning of efforts in this area, but interpretation of social complexity remains chiefly the realm of social scientists’

get

Alexander, H.A. (2006) A View from somewhere: Explaining the paradigms of Educational Research. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 40,2, 205-221.

Also relevant to the discussion in this section is the academic approach that focuses on the relationship between learning & development eg Piaget, Vgotsky, Bruner ( KRO therefore in my opening chapter need to emphasise that I will not be doing so)

Phj p376 suggests benefits of the above model as ‘ boundaries with bi-directional permeability emphasise the role of the educational social environment’.

networked learning, theory & method, G.Conole

Grainne’s position paper for hotseat January 2010

Theory & Methodology in Networked Learning

Phrasing

‘changing and contested nature’

‘theory as an antidote to technical determinism’

‘understand, work with and subvert structures – organisational, discipline, career.’

Definitions

Required as a result of evolving trends with different foci of inquiry

Networked learning – a term that is inclusive of everyone and everything involved.

Methodology – describes how different philosophical positions would interpret data. Methodology aligns with different epistemological beliefs and views of the world.

Theory – structure, idea or it can be empirical ie based on measurements and observations of reality.

Diversity of theory

Touchstone

Tool

Principle

Provides a framework for example a way of understanding and predicting something.

Can have explanatory power

May consist of general assumptions, laws

Models – are ‘abstract representations that help us understand something we cannot see or experience directly ( Conole, Oliver et al, 2007) e.g. Kolb’s learning cycle. Models are often represented visually. Garrison, community of learning model.

Framework – ‘structure and/or vocabulary that supports explication’

Research traditions ( not strictly a definition) historical, cultural, political influences all collectively shape traditions. Also influenced by birth discipline and/or experience of practice.

Theoretical perspectives, dominant discourses

1. Cultural historical activity theory – key notion is mediation by artefacts
2. CoP
3. Actor Network Theory ‘ considers both people and technologies as Actants in a connected network and in particular that it is the relationship between these actants that is important.’ ‘Focuses more on the form that a network takes’ and their formation and sustaibility.

Methodological approaches

note there can be different levels of analysis micro, macro & meta

Content Analysis

Henri, 1992 identified 5 dimesnions that can be used to evaluate CMC, namaely participative, social, interactive, cognitive and metacognitive

Garrison – interaction of 3 core components, cognitive presence, teaching presence and social presence.

Gunawadena et al, 1997 – types of cognitive activity the participant engaged with, questioning, clarifying, negotiating, synthesising, etc as well as the types of argument they put forward, the resources they used and any evidence of changes in understanding.

De Laat et al – multimethod SNA + content analysis + critical event

SEE JONES article for effect of context doing the collaboration using a computer with all seated around the computer.

Ethnography

Case Studies

Action research

Evaluation – but note the relationship between evaluation & research remains contested. One way to distinguish them is to consider how the findings are used ‘ if they are interpreted by an immediate, local audience and used to support decion making, the study was probably an evaluation; if the findings are interpreted in terms of theories and are presented as a contribution to knowledge , it was probably research’

Questions

How often is the data collected a reflection of the data that is generated?

What is technology enhanced learning?

Examples

Cloud works as a case study;

Theoretical perspective was socio-cultural drawing on artefacts. At this stage ( early 2010) cloudwork research uses the following frameworks, Goffman – face work, Engestrom, expansive learning, Levy – collective intelligence.Resources

TLRP TEL associations Challenges of Interdisplinary conference in 2007 http://www.tlrp.org/tel/tel-seminars/the-challenges-of-interdisciplinary-research/

Cloud scape of interdisciplinarity

http://cloudworks.ac.uk/cloudscape/view/1954

Special edition of JIME published in 2002 and edited by Martin Oliver

Oliver, M. (2002). Special Issue on Theory for Learning Technologies: Editorial. Journal of Interactive Media in Education, 2002 (9). ISSN:1365-893X

[www-jime.open.ac.uk/2002/9]

Research methods knowledge based

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/

ESRC National Cnetre for Research methods

http://www.ncrm.ac.uk

Beissel-Durrant, G., (2004) A typology for Research Methods within the social sciences. Available at

http://eprints.ncrm.ac.uk/115/

Conole, G., & Oliver, M., (2002)

Contemporary perspectives in e-learning research: themes, methods, and impact on practice

http://ora.open.ac.uk/12148/

Jones, C., (1999). From the sage on the stage to what exactly? Description and the place of the moderator in cooperative and collaborative learning, ALT-J, 7(2), 27-36

Yin, R., (2009) Case study research: design and methods 4^th ed., London, Sage.

Centre for interdisciplinary research

http://www.crucible.cl.cam.ac.uk

Jones - Perspectives imitation - comment on Gallese

Susan Jones (2005)

The role of mirror neurons in imitation

A commentary on V.Gallese

“Being like me: Self-other identity, mirror units and empathy

In Hurley, S & Chater, N (2005) Perspectives on Imitation: From neuroscience to social science: Vol 1 Mechanisms of imitation and imitation in animals, Cambridge, MA,US: MIT Press 205-210.

Jones’s position as regards what is NOT the function of mirror units

• Mirror units are not direct transducers of observed behaviours to executed behaviours. P207 ‘ they respond to both sensory input and motor events; they do not respond to sensory input with motor events’

• ‘the idea that mirror units link observed actions directly to stored ‘motor plans’ also seems wrong!’ Mainly because when you consider the simplest of actions the number of factors involved make each action ( eg reaching) unique not least because of variations, even very small variations, in context.’

Jones’s critique of Gallese

+

Likes Gallese’s view ‘ mirror units as sources of the experience of common experience with other people, animals or robots like ourselves’ His proposal that ‘ mirror units are part of the mechanism for the automatic, sub-personal, non-propositional recognition and understanding of others’. Also that ‘This recognition and understanding of just the nature of others’ behaviours might then feed into an understanding of the intentions and states behind these actions’ ie it might lead to empathy

(KRO mirror units as general understanding of others rather than a specific understanding of an other)

Jones sees such knowledge and understanding as a prerequisite for imitation

( KRO again

general understanding/awareness of others leads to specific ideas about the intentions etc of another which might require the process of imitation.

? – on three points for Gallese’s claim for mirror unit involvement as a transducer , by direct mapping perception to action in imitative behaviour of infants, specifically tongue protrusion behaviour. ( note his only claim for the involvement of mirror units in imitation).

1. Jones suggests that this ‘resembles the classic reflex loop rather than the mirror unit activity as observed in Gallese’s own experiments’

2. Tongue protrusion often cited as possibly imitative behaviour of young infants but this does not take place in a one to one fashion. In Meltzoff & Meltzoff experiments it was ‘wehile the model was not tongue protruding that the infant’s tongue protrusions were most numerous ie no co-concurrence ( KRO ? need co-presence for co-concurrence)

3. Jones (1996) has shown tongue protrusion behaviour to flashing light and Jones (2001) to music. Is tongue proptrusion in infants due to arousal

Jones’s proposition ( based on the positive aspects of critique of Gallese)

She sees the important property of mirror neurons that ‘ they can fire for a specific instance of a broader category of actions – but not know whether it was mine or yours . What would such cells be good for if not to blur the lines between me and you and let us each know the other to be like ourself’