Critique of the Tuckman model of group processes.
How to cite this article: Smith, M. K. (2005) 'Bruce W. Tuckman - forming, storming, norming and performing in groups, the encyclopaedia of informal education,www.infed.org/thinkers/tuckman.htm.
Acknowledgements: The picture, by FredArmitage/flickr is reproduced here under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-No Derivative Works 2.0 Generic licence.
© Mark K. Smith 2005 Assessment
Several things need saying about Bruce W. Tuckman's model. First, it can be subjected to a more general critique of stage theory (which is discussed elsewhere with regard to life span development). The sheer scale of such theory - by seeking to present a universal or general picture can mean it over-reaches itself. While there may be some 'universals of development' when we come to examine, in this case, the individual group things are rarely that straightforward. Human processes are frequently characterised by variability and flux. Furthermore, our own experiences of groups are likely to show significant deviations from the path laid out by stage theories. 'Stages' may be missed out, other ways of naming a phase or experiences may be more appropriate.
Second, we need to explore the robustness of the actual categories. There is some overlap between the different stages in Bruce W. Tuckman's model - the demarcation is not that clear-cut. For example, 'when group conflict is waning... feelings of cohesion may be increasing, but these time-dependent changes do not occur in a discontinuous, steplike sequence' (Forsyth 1990: 89). However, the take-up of the model isn't simply a matter of some catchy titles. Many theorists and commentators have used the categories (often re-titled) with only marginal amendment.
Third, Bruce W. Tuckman's model is linear (sometimes described as 'successive-stage'). A number of other theorists have proposed cyclical models. An example of how this may occur comes from Bales (1965). He argued that group members tend to seek a balance between accomplishing the task and building interpersonal relationships in the group. At one point the focus will be on the former, at another on the latter. The result is, effectively, a movement between norming and performing. Below we have represented Tuckman's initial model in a way that follows the same phases but allows for issues recurring at different points in a group's life.
Fourth, there is a question of the extent to which the attractiveness of the labelling Bruce W. Tuckman adopted has contributed to unthinking application by trainers and a reading onto groups of the phases. This really isn't an issue with the formulation - rather how a nice turn of phrase can lead to laziness on the part of practitioners and trainers. Bruce W. Tuckman's model offers us a way of thinking about the groups we encounter and participate within in. It offers, in Donald Schön's terms a metaphor or image that we can play with to make sense of the phenomenon before us.
Conclusion
Bruce W. Tuckman's model of the developmental sequence in small groups has rightly been adopted as a helpful starting point about possible stages or phases within different small groups. When the original article was written it was an important summary of the existing literature - and its longevity reflects Tuckman's ability to categorize and synthesize - and to get it right. While there may be all sorts of debates around such approaches to stage theory, and around the need for a model that reflects the flux of groups, there does seem to be some truth in the assertion that small groups tend to follow a fairly predictable path.
Further reading and bibliography
Bales, R. F. (1965) 'The equilibrium problem in small groups' in A. P. Hare, E. F. Borgatta and R. F. Bales (eds.) Small Groups: Studies in social interaction, New York: Knopf.
Brown, R. (1999) Group Processes 2e, Oxford: Blackwell.
Forsyth, D. R. (1990, 1998) Group Dynamics, Pacific Grove CA.: Brooks/Cole Publishing.
Schön, D. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner, London: Temple Smith.
Tuckman, Bruce W. (1965) 'Developmental sequence in small groups', Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384-399. The article was reprinted in Group Facilitation: A Research and Applications Journal ‑ Number 3, Spring 2001 and is available as a Word document:http://dennislearningcenter.osu.edu/references/GROUP%20DEV%20ARTICLE.doc. Accessed January 14, 2005.
Tuckman, Bruce W. (1972) Conducting Educational Research, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Fifth edition 1999 by Wadsworth.
Tuckman, Bruce W. (1979) Evaluating Instructional Programs, Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Tuckman, Bruce W. (1984) 'Citation classic - Developmental sequence in small groups'Current Concerns. Available: as a pdf file:http://www.garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1984/A1984TD25600001.pdf.
Tuckman, Bruce W. (1996) Theories and Applications of Educational Psychology, New York: McGraw Hill. Third edition with D. Moneth published 2001.
Tuckman, Bruce W. (2003) 'Homepage', Ohio State University, http://www.coe.ohio-state.edu/btuckman/, Accessed January 14, 2005.
Tuckman, Bruce W., & Jensen, Mary Ann C. (1977). 'Stages of small group development revisited', Group and Organizational Studies, 2, 419- 427.
Tuckman, Bruce W. and O'Brian, John. L. (1969) Preparing to Teach the Disadvantaged,New York: Free Press
