Is a picture worth a thousand words? Photographic Images in Long-Term and Short-Term Computer Mediated Communication (2001)
Walther, J.B., , Slovacek, C.L., and Tidwell, L.C.
Communication Research, 28, 105.
DOI: 10.1177/009365001028001004
- wide spread adoption of text based conferencing.
- what are the advantages, if any of online environments that try to emulate FTF levels of presence?
REVIEW
Social presence theory ( Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976). Originally a theory of teleconferencing.
'Conceives social presence as a communicator's subjective sense about the salience of an interaction partner' 'This feeling is a function of a number of cues that the medium offers' i.e. focuses on the quantity rather than the quality of transmitted cues. Effect of reduced social presence is a reduction in interpersonal warmth and affection.
(KRO this idea of social presence does not consider the effect of asynchrony ? different to Garrison & Anderson).
Whereas users rate video higher than CMC and audio on social presence(refs) users tend to only use video to check attention levels of others : is it access to the visual appearance of others that leads to higher ratings of such environments?
Uncertainty reduction theory ( Berger & Calabrese, 1975) 'Greater amounts of information about partners reduce discomfort, increases predictability, and raises the level of affection towards others.' Berger & Douglas ( 1981) 'found that seeing photographs did have uncertainty reducing effects'
Social Information Processing (SIP) theory of relational communication (Walther, 1992)
When required to interact individuals are motivated to affliliate and therefore they use whatever cue systems are available. In CMC this is usually content. Walther (1996) suggests that 'negative effects are confined to zero history groups with no longevity' Level of motivation can depend on a number of factors but anticipated future interaction very high on the list of motivators. Anticipated future interaction 'promotes more personal questions and slef disclosures ........ and influences intimacy levels more than media cues'
The Hyperpersonal communication framework Variant ( ? development ) of SIP
considered in terms of receivers, senders & the channel.
Receivers - This part of the theory is influenced by/ draws on SIDE (social identification/deindividuation ( Spear & Lea, 1992).
'When there are no cues available to identify others then any bit of social information transferred by the context is subject to overattribution by receivers. Under certain circumstances of CMC users construct hyperbolic and idealized constructions of their virtual partners'
"furthermore, when partners experience a salient group identity rather than an individual orientation, these attributions accentuate similarities and shared norms and therefore social evaluations are more positive'
Senders and impression management
Senders are able to engage in selective self-presentation.
- Messages can be revised and timed
- no acccidental transmission of unintended NVC
- no cues to physical appearance
- some of the cognitive-behavioral resources that are required in FTF ( backchanneling, attention checking etc)
- channel -have time to attend to both the task and the social dimensions of the exchange.
therefore
'the hyperpersonal perspective depicts how senders select, receivers magnify, channels promote and feedback increases enhanced and selective communication behaviors in CMC'
'by subsuming SIP principles CMC users anticipate a long-term commitment with their partners, they initiate affliative behaviours as as time accrues, these experiences affect communication patterns positively'
Method
8 groups of virtual work-teams ( USA & UK students) - 24 participants
task was 'plausible and relevant and required high levels of involvement over a realistic period of time'
2 ( long term/short term) x2 (photograph/no photograph) design
DVs (cf DZX when survey focused on student experience of course rather than specifics about others)
self administered questionnaire post course, 5 point Likert scale. when appropriate each participant assessed two others.
- Intimacy/affection - Burgoon & Hale's (1987) scale
- Relational communication - Walther & Burgoon, 1992 - adjusted for groups
- attractiveness - subset of McCroskey & McCain (1974) (task- 5 items, social - 5 items, physical- 5 items)
- self presentation success was assessed using two original items
' the computer-mediated communication allowed me to present myself in a favourable way'
'I think I made a good impression on the others through the use of the computer system'
Results
Intimacy/affection & relational : 'the same photographs that help defeat impersonal conditions ( short term contexts) also dampen hyperpersonal ones ( that form in long term online encounters)
projected attractiveness: only over attributed for males rating females and 'suggests that social categorical judgements might arise regardless of physical appearance ( see also Postmes et al)
success of self presentation users felt that CMC facilitated better self presentation when there was no photo.
